Sustainably graphitizing biomass into advanced carbon materials for energy and environmental applications

The demand for graphitic carbon materials is growing steadily, yet traditional production methods heavily rely on fossil fuels or mineral graphite, failing to achieve sustainable development goals. Biomass, as a renewable, low-cost, and environmentally friendly carbon precursor, represents a highly promising alternative for graphitic carbon production. This review explores the graphitization potential of biomass components: cellulose enhances product orderliness, hemicellulose optimizes the microstructure of graphitic carbon, and lignin facilitates the formation of high-quality graphitic structures. Starch-derived carbon mainly forms microporous carbon, and a high branched-chain starch content is required for electrochemical applications. Additionally, the various metallic and non-metallic elements present in biomass exert differing effects on the graphitization process. This review also summarizes methods for producing biomass-based graphitic carbon (BBGC). Catalyzed graphitization can overcome the high-energy-consumption bottleneck of traditional processes, while high-temperature graphitization can leverage the aromatic structure of lignin to produce highly crystalline products. Emerging techniques such as chemical foaming, hydrothermal carbonization, and ultrasonic exfoliation enable the preparation of graphitic carbon tailored for specific applications. This review also explores the application of graphitic carbon in energy storage and environmental remediation, where its sustainability and cost-effectiveness surpass those of traditional materials. Furthermore, this review identifies an environmentally optimized pathway through life cycle assessment (LCA). From an environmental, social, and governance (ESG) perspective, BBGC, as carbon negative technology, can reduce greenhouse gas emissions while avoiding the ecological damage and social issues associated with mineral graphite mining, aligning with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).